① 土木工程專業英語全文翻譯
Introction to Civil Engineering Papers
Civil Engineering for the development of a key role, first as a material foundation for the civil engineering construction materials, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. Every time a new quality of building materials, civil engineering will be a leap-style development.
People can only rely on the early earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. China in the eleventh century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick and tile better than the mechanical properties of soil, materials, and easy to manufacture.
The brick and tile so that people began to appear widely, to a large number of housing construction and urban flood control project, and so on. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 to the 19th century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, human civilization has made a great contribution to the even was also widely used in the present.
The application of a large number of steel procts is the second leap in civil engineering. Seventeen 1970s the use of pig iron, the early nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of steel.
From the beginning of the mid-nineteenth century, metallurgical instry, smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, ctility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel and then proce high-strength steel wire, steel cables. As a result of the need to adapt to the development of the steel structure have been flourishing. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, a framework, the structure of network, cable structures to promote the graal emergence of the structure of Yan in the form of flowers.
From the brick building long-span structures, stone structures, a few meters of wood, steel structure to the development of tens of meters, a few hundred meters, until modern km above. So in the river, cross the bridge from shelves, on the ground since the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, even in the laying of underground railway, to create an unprecedented miracle.
In order to meet the needs of the development of steel works, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory came into being, and so on. Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, engineering practice and theoretical basis for both is a different place, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering.
During the nineteenth century, 20, made of Portland cement, concrete has come out. Concrete can aggregate materials, easy-to-concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited use. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the surge in steel proction, with the emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite construction materials, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure and play their own advantages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, reinforced concrete is widely used in various fields of civil engineering.
From the beginning of the 1930s, there have been pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete structure of the crack resistance, rigidity and carrying capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Concrete buildings to bring about the emergence of new economic, aesthetic structure in the form of engineering, civil engineering so that a new construction technology and engineering design of the structure of the theory. This is another leap in the development of civil engineering.
A project to build the facilities in general to go through the investigation, design and construction in three stages, require the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro-geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, mechanical engineering, engineering design, building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy , And other disciplines and construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as computer and mechanical testing techniques. Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. With the progress in science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a broad connotation, the number of categories, the structure of complex integrated system.
Civil Engineering is accompanied by the development of human society developed. It works in the construction of facilities reflect the various historical periods of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technological development outlook, which civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness.
In ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and still water channel to meet the simple life and proction. Later, in order to adapt to the war, proction and dissemination of religious life, as well as the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces, temples and other buildings.
Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, the Great Wall of China, Dujiangyan, the Grand Canal, Zhaozhou Bridge, Yingxian Wooden Tower, the pyramids of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, colosseum amphitheater (Rome large animal fighting Field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on.
After the instrial revolution, especially in the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forward a new demand; On the other hand, all areas of society for the advancement of civil engineering to create good conditions. Thus this period of civil engineering has been advanced by leaps and bounds. All over the world there have been large-scale modernization of instrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridges, and large-diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grand Canal, the big dams, airports, port and marine engineering, etc. . For civil engineering continually modern human society to create a new physical environment, human society, modern civilization has become an important part.
Civil Engineering is a very practical subjects. In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, in particular, to draw lessons from the failure of developed. From the beginning of the 17th century, with Galileo and Newton as a pilot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, graally formed the mechanical, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mechanics, civil engineering as the basis of theoretical subjects. This experience in civil engineering from the graally developed into a science.
In the course of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. So far a number of projects dealing with the problem, is still very much rely on practical experience.
Civil Engineering Technology with the main reason for the development of engineering practice and not by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, for two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated and difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and analysis. For example, the foundation, tunnel and underground engineering and deformation of the state and its changes over time, still need to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. Second, only a new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems. For example, the construction of a high-rise buildings, high-rise tower and mast-span bridges, wind and earthquake engineering problems highlighted in order to develop this new theory and technology.
In the long-term civil engineering practice, it is not only building great attention to the arts, has made outstanding achievements; and other works, but also through the choice of different materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with natural Environmental art in the construction of a number of very beautiful, very functional and good works. Ancient Great Wall of China, the modern world, many of the television tower and the bridge ramp Zhang, are cases in point.
A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .
As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :instrial buildings and civil buildings .instrial buildings are used by various factories or instrial proction while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,ecation and other social activities .
Instrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining instry ,the metallurgical instry ,machine building ,the chemical instry and the textile instry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of instrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,instrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .
Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.
Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .
In the mid-1960』s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly instrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we』re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .
Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.
An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : 「day」, 「night」 ,and 「services」 .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the 「day 「rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the 「night 「rooms consist of the bedrooms .the 「services 「comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .
It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .
There is little standardization in instrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a 「shed 」type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .
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③ 急求一份土木工程專業英語（第2版）段兵延主編的全書翻譯
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④ 急求：土木工程專業英語（第二版 段兵延主編）翻譯
第一課
土木工程學
土木工程學作為最老的工程技術學科，是指規劃，設計，施工及對建築環境的管理。此處的環境包括建築符合科學規范的所有結構，從灌溉和排水系統到火箭發射設施。
土木工程師建造道路，橋梁，管道，大壩，海港，發電廠，給排水系統，醫院，學校，公共交通和其他現代社會和大量人口集中地區的基礎公共設施。他們也建造私有設施，比如飛機場，鐵路，管線，摩天大樓，以及其他設計用作工業，商業和住宅途徑的大型結構。此外，土木工程師還規劃設計及建造完整的城市和鄉鎮，並且最近一直在規劃設計容納設施齊全的社區的空間平台。
土木一詞來源於拉丁文詞「公民」。在1782年，英國人John Smeaton為了把他的非軍事工程工作區別於當時占優勢地位的軍事工程師的工作而採用的名詞。自從那時起，土木工程學被用於提及從事公共設施建設的工程師，盡管其包含的領域更為廣闊。
領域。因為包含范圍太廣，土木工程學又被細分為大量的技術專業。不同類型的工程需要多種不同土木工程專業技術。一個項目開始的時候，土木工程師要對場地進行測繪，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和電力線。岩土工程專家則進行土力學試驗以確定土壤能否承受工程荷載。環境工程專家研究工程對當地的影響，包括對空氣和地下水的可能污染，對當地動植物生活的影響，以及如何讓工程設計滿足政府針對環境保護的需要。交通工程專家確定必需的不同種類設施以減輕由整個工程造成的對當地公路和其他交通網路的負擔。同時，結構工程專家利用初步數據對工程作詳細規劃，設計和說明。從項目開始到結束，對這些土木工程專家的工作進行監督和調配的則是施工管理專家。根據其他專家所提供的信息，施工管理專家計算材料和人工的數量和花費，所有工作的進度表，訂購工作所需要的材料和設備，僱傭承包商和分包商，還要做些額外的監督工作以確保工程能按時按質完成。
貫穿任何給定項目，土木工程師都需要大量使用計算機。計算機用於設計工程中使用的多數元件（即計算機輔助設計，或者CAD）並對其進行管理。計算機成為了現代土木工程師的必備品，因為它使得工程師能有效地掌控所需的大量數據從而確定建造一項工程的最佳方法。
結構工程學。在這一專業領域，土木工程師規劃設計各種類型的結構，包括橋梁，大壩，發電廠，設備支撐，海面上的特殊結構，美國太空計劃，發射塔，龐大的天文和無線電望遠鏡，以及許多其他種類的項目。結構工程師應用計算機確定一個結構必須承受的力：自重，風荷載和颶風荷載，建築材料溫度變化引起的脹縮，以及地震荷載。他們也需確定不同種材料如鋼筋，混凝土，塑料，石頭，瀝青，磚，鋁或其他建築材料等的復合作用。
水利工程學。土木工程師在這一領域主要處理水的物理控制方面的種種問題。他們的項目用於幫助預防洪水災害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，維護河灘及其他濱水設施。此外，他們設計和維護海港，運河與水閘，建造大型水利大壩與小型壩，以及各種類型的圍堰，幫助設計海上結構並且確定結構的位置對航行影響。
岩土工程學。專業於這個領域的土木工程師對支撐結構並影響結構行為的土壤和岩石的特性進行分析。他們計算建築和其他結構由於自重壓力可能引起的沉降，並採取措施使之減少到最小。他們也需計算並確定如何加強斜坡和填充物的穩定性以及如何保護結構免受地震和地下水的影響。
環境工程學。在這一工程學分支中，土木工程師設計，建造並監視系統以提供安全的飲用水，同時預防和控制地表和地下水資源供給的污染。他們也設計，建造並監視工程以控制甚至消除對土地和空氣的污染。他們建造供水和廢水處理廠，設計空氣凈化器和其他設備以最小化甚至消除由工業加工、焚化及其他產煙生產活動引起的空氣污染。他們也採用建造特殊傾倒地點或使用有毒有害物中和劑的措施來控制有毒有害廢棄物。此外，工程師還對垃圾掩埋進行設計和管理以預防其對周圍環境造成污染。
交通工程學。從事這一專業領域的土木工程師建造可以確保人和貨物安全高效運行的設施。他們專門研究各種類型運輸設施的設計和維護，如公路和街道，公共交通系統，鐵路和飛機場，港口和海港。交通工程師應用技術知識及考慮經濟，政治和社會因素來設計每一個項目。他們的工作和城市規劃者十分相似，因為交通運輸系統的質量直接關繫到社區的質量。
渠道工程學。在土木工程學的這一支鏈中，土木工程師建造渠道和運送從煤泥漿(混合的煤和水)和半流體廢污，到水、石油和多種類型的高度可燃和不可燃的氣體中分離出來的液體，氣體和固體的相關設備。工程師決定渠道的設計，項目所處地區必須考慮到的經濟性和環境因素，以及所使用材料的類型——鋼、混凝土、塑料、或多種材料的復合——的安裝技術，測試渠道強度的方法，和控制所運送流體材料保持適當的壓力和流速。當流體中攜帶危險材料時，安全性因素也需要被考慮。
建築工程學。土木工程師在這個領域中從開始到結束監督項目的建築。他們，有時被稱為項目工程師，應用技術和管理技能，包括建築工藝，規劃，組織，財務，和操作項目建設的知識。事實上，他們協調工程中每個人的活動：測量員，布置和建造臨時道路和斜坡，開挖基礎，支模板和澆注混凝土的工人，以及鋼筋工人。這些工程師也向結構的業主提供進度計劃報告。
社區和城市規劃。從事土木工程這一方面的工程師可能規劃和發展一個城市中的社區，或整個城市。此規劃中所包括的遠遠不僅僅為工程因素，土地的開發使用和自然資源環境的，社會的和經濟的因素也是主要的成分。這些土木工程師對公共建設工程的規劃和私人建築的發展進行協調。他們評估所需的設施，包括街道，公路，公共運輸系統，機場，港口，給排水和污水處理系統，公共建築，公園，和娛樂及其他設施以保證社會，經濟和環境地協調發展。
攝影測量，測量學和地圖繪制。在這一專業領域的土木工程師精確測量地球表面以獲得可靠的信息來定位和設計工程項目。這一 方麵包括高工藝學方法，如衛星成相，航拍，和計算機成相。來自人造衛星的無線電信號，通過激光和音波柱掃描被轉換為地圖，為隧道鑽孔，建造高速公路和大壩，繪制洪水控制和灌溉方案，定位可能影響建築項目的地下岩石構成，以及許多其他建築用途提供更精準的測量。
其他的專門項目。還有兩個並不完全在土木工程范圍裡面但對訓練相當重要的附加的專門項目是工程管理和工程教學。
工程管理。許多土木工程師都選擇最終通向管理的職業。其他則能讓他們的事業從管理位置開始。土木工程管理者結合技術上的知識和一種組織能力來協調勞動力，材料，機械和錢。這些工程師可能工作在政府——市政、國家、州或聯邦；在美國陸軍軍團作為軍隊或平民的管理工程師；或在半自治地區，城市主管當局或相似的組織。他們也可能管理規模為從幾個到百個雇員的私營工程公司。
工程教學。通常選擇教學事業的土木工程師教授研究生和本科生技術上的專門項目。許多從事教學的土木工程師參與會導致建築材料和施工方法技術革新的基礎研究。多數也擔任工程項目或技術領域的顧問，和主要項目的代理。
⑤ 土木工程專業英語第二版秦衛紅翻譯，急急急，網友幫幫忙，感謝
這是最好的專業，專門在中國永遠的，為什麼呢？中國建築，城市規劃，建設似乎永遠不會結束。樓房拆遷重建，城市建築越來越多，但新的領導班子的人數上任，還要建，所以這個專業在中國是永遠的好專業，但是隨著中國城市的不斷擴張，大量的農村人口向城市的遷移，中國的城市化才剛剛開始，因為這個專業的建議，女孩放棄的特殊性，但。
1，在過去的土木工程是分開的，土木工程，道路，橋梁，隧道，事實上，現在已經分開，只是因為他們的基礎課，專業課相同的國家團結起來的學科，根據美國過去的設定時間是根據蘇聯的分割方法，而美國大致分為，與美國已接近; - 第2，但是這三個有很多不同的學科，橋梁和土木工程是最大的區別不僅是學習土木結構，以及建築（裝飾，屋頂，建築理論等），它不是學習的橋梁;
頁3，我也學習的橋梁，為畢業後兩年內橋，然後去土木工程，因為土木工程行業的主要單元（內置在系統中主要是土木工程，薪酬體系，中國中鐵大橋局橋）;跨學科還是有些影響的，當我搞技術的也兩年多來適應，但施工單位也比較好，很多東西都是固定的，根據規格，阿特拉斯走就行了，但一些大學學習和實際內發展很可能是幾年的差異，所以學校很多東西都是不實際的，也有很多要學習當實際繁重的工作，那我也沒有參考書，後來人們給了我一本書，他們的建築學院，土木工程有時間就知道了，現在很多的參考資料，改行也很容易;
4，橋的就業機會不小，而許多單位支付系統，鐵路系統，內置在系統和當地的交通系統;
頁5，人生的大學，其實並不是唯一的專業學習專業知識，更重要的是，現在是時候去學習禮儀，提高社交能力，這兩者應該處理好了，好了，畢業頭我處理無論是在學校還是覺得，覺得以後的幾年時間里，你可以學到更多，處理兩者，這是非常重要的，考慮到了榮譽之間的關系;
6，專業的事，基礎做鋪墊未來，不要求很細，但學校好就行，最大限度地減少偏科，學習專業知識，沒有捷徑和技巧，努力的自然結果，課程沒有任何注意力，學習方法不兩句話可以明確，也不是適用於任何人，學習的大學課程裡面也培養自己的學習過程，這是非常重要的，接觸不同學科的需要後，一些較強的自主學習能力，這是不是被教導要自己培養出來的，因為是為人處世喜歡;
7，項目經理是一份工作，施工代表單位的項目，這是對性能的各個方面的工作還是不錯的，綜合性的技能和強大的能力的人，最重要的是組織，溝通能力，能夠與技能，這在學校的表現，同時較低的親和力需要培養;
8，學一門專業做了最好的理由，但更多的時候只是一份工作，我喜歡這份工作，其實，原來的一個有很多的夢想，在中國目前的情況，有沒有機會選擇喜歡的職業，當完成自己的工作，現在也不錯;
9，項目經理，現在有一個施工一級資質證書，四年後畢業，使考試，除了學校的英語考試證書，計算機，駕照，該項目涉及的一個有用的無證書;
其實最喜歡的土木工程，道路橋梁，道路等市政服務的專業土建基本都一樣，橋並不意味著學習不能做土木工程，土木建築相關課程，了解選舉的過程中，主管土木工程。說一些在校學習，還是實際相結合的經驗和體驗是非常重要的。
專業也非常好橋梁，公路，市政橋梁等工程的專業人才相當大的比重，特別是我們的江浙一帶，水網縱橫的橋梁是非常重要的。至於什麼樣的學校 - 認真學習就可以了每門課程。做畢業後沒有工作經驗，但缺乏理論知識。什麼不應該。
項目經理（現在的建造師），到一定年限工作在考試前，畢業後再說。
⑥ 誰有土木工程專業英語第二版的翻譯啊
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⑦ 土木工程專業英語翻譯 段兵延
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⑧ 土木工程專業英語課文翻譯 段兵廷主編第二版
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第四課 高層建築
大體上建築施工工藝學方面已經有許多進步, 在超高層的設計和施工上已經取得了驚人的成就。
高層建築早期的發展開始於鋼結構。鋼筋混凝土和薄殼筒系統已經經濟而競爭性地被用於大量的住宅和商業目的的結構。由於新型結構系統的創新和發展，現在從50到100層的高層建築遍布全美國。
更大高度的要求增加了樑柱的尺寸以使建築物剛性更強，以便在風荷載作用下建築物將不會產生超過一個可接受限度的擺動。過度的側移可能導致隔牆，天花板和其他建築細部的重復性損害。此外，過度側傾可能使建築物的居住者因為對擺動的知覺而導致不便。鋼筋混凝土和鋼結構系統，能充分利用整個建築物固有潛在的勁性，因而不需要額外加勁以限制側傾。
例如，在一個鋼結構中，經濟性由建築物房屋面積每平方英尺鋼的全部平均數量來定義。圖一中的曲線A採用層逐漸增加的數量表現傳統框架的平均單位重。曲線B則表現框架受到所有橫向荷載保護下的平均鋼重量。上下邊界之間的間隙則表現傳統樑柱框架為高度付出的額外費用。結構工程師已經發展了可消除這一額外費用的結構系統。
鋼結構體系。因為一些類型的結構改革，鋼高層建築物得到了發展。此改革被用於辦公大樓和公寓的建造。
帶有剛性帶式桁架的框架。為了將一個框架結構的外柱約束於內部的垂直梁架,可能在建築物中部和頂部採用一個剛性帶式桁架的系統。這一系統的最好例證是在密爾瓦基的威斯康辛州第一銀行建築物 (1974)。
框架筒體。只有當建築物突出地面的所有的柱構件能夠彼此連接使整個建築物成為一個空心筒體或一個勁性箱體時，一幢高層建築的整個結構才能最有效。這種特殊的結構體系第一次大概是用於芝加哥的43層樓高的德威特栗木鋼筋混凝土公寓。而這一系統最重要的應用是紐約的110層樓高的世界貿易中心的鋼結構雙塔。
對角柱桁架支撐筒體。建築物的外柱可以被適當的分隔卻仍能通過在樑柱中線處交叉對角構件連接使之作為一個筒體而共同工作。這種簡單而又極其有用的系統最早被用於芝加哥的約翰漢考克中心，其僅僅使用了傳統的40層樓高建築的用鋼量
組合筒體（束筒）。由於對更大更高的建築物的持續需求，框架筒和對角柱桁架支撐筒可能採用組合使用的形式以創造更大的筒，並仍可以保持高功效。芝加哥110層樓高的西爾斯瑞巴克總部有9個筒，由三排建築物組合而成。一些個別筒體終止在建築物不同的高度，證明了無限建築可能性的結構觀念。西爾斯塔高1450英尺（442m），是世界上最高的建築。
薄殼筒體系。筒結構體系的發展提高了高層建築抵抗側向力（風和地震作用）和飄移（建築物的側向運動）的能力。薄殼筒使筒結構體系有了進一步的發展。薄殼筒的進步是利用（高層）建築的外表面（牆和板）作為與框筒共同作用的結構構件，為高層建築抵抗側向荷載提供了一個有效的途徑，而且可獲得不設柱子，節省成本，使用面積與建築面積之比很高的室內空間。
由於薄殼表面的作用，筒體的框架構件數量減少，使得結構更輕，費用更少。所有標准柱和外牆托梁都採用標准型鋼，使得組合構件的使用和花費最小化。四周外牆托梁的深度要求也被減少，而且樓板上的頂梁對有用空間的佔用會達到最小。這種結構系統已經被使用於 54 層樓高的匹茲堡的梅隆銀行中心。
混凝土體系。雖然採用鋼結構建造的高層建築開始很早，但是鋼筋混凝土高層建築的快速發展在辦公大樓和公寓方面對鋼結構體系產生了很大的挑戰。
框架筒體。由上面討論到的，高層建築最早的框架筒體概念應用於43層樓高的德威特栗木公寓。在這一建築物中，外柱以中心距為5.5英尺（168米）的間隔排列，內柱則用於支撐8英寸厚的混凝土平板。
筒中筒。另一個用於辦公大樓的鋼筋混凝土結構體系是將內部框架筒體與傳統的剪力牆工藝相結合。這種體系由間距很小的柱子構成的外框架筒與圍繞中心設備區的剛性剪力牆內筒組成。這種被稱為筒中筒的體系使設計目前世界上最高（714英尺或218米），總費用只相當於傳統35層樓高的剪力牆結構體系的輕型混凝土建築（52層樓高的休斯頓的殼廣場建築）成為可能。
結合混凝土和鋼的體系也得到發展，這方面的一個例子是由Skidmore, Owings 和 Merrill發展的復合體系。它是採用間距很小的混凝土外框架筒包圍鋼框架內筒組成，因此兼有鋼筋混凝土和鋼結構體系的優點。在新奧爾良的一個 52 層樓高的殼廣場建築便是以這一體系為基礎。
是這個不？
⑨ 土木工程專業英語課文翻譯 段兵廷主編第二版lessen7 readingmaterial（1）
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⑩ 土木工程專業英語第2版的翻譯
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