① 土木工程专业英语全文翻译
Introction to Civil Engineering Papers
Civil Engineering for the development of a key role, first as a material foundation for the civil engineering construction materials, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction technology. Every time a new quality of building materials, civil engineering will be a leap-style development.
People can only rely on the early earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building materials. China in the eleventh century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the tile. The first brick in the fifth century BC to the third century BC, when the tomb of the Warring States Period. Brick and tile better than the mechanical properties of soil, materials, and easy to manufacture.
The brick and tile so that people began to appear widely, to a large number of housing construction and urban flood control project, and so on. This civil engineering technology has been rapid development. Up to 18 to the 19th century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, human civilization has made a great contribution to the even was also widely used in the present.
The application of a large number of steel procts is the second leap in civil engineering. Seventeen 1970s the use of pig iron, the early nineteenth century, the use of wrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of steel.
From the beginning of the mid-nineteenth century, metallurgical instry, smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, ctility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel and then proce high-strength steel wire, steel cables. As a result of the need to adapt to the development of the steel structure have been flourishing. In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, a framework, the structure of network, cable structures to promote the graal emergence of the structure of Yan in the form of flowers.
From the brick building long-span structures, stone structures, a few meters of wood, steel structure to the development of tens of meters, a few hundred meters, until modern km above. So in the river, cross the bridge from shelves, on the ground since the construction of skyscrapers and high-rise tower, even in the laying of underground railway, to create an unprecedented miracle.
In order to meet the needs of the development of steel works, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory came into being, and so on. Construction machinery, construction technology and construction organization design theory also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, engineering practice and theoretical basis for both is a different place, which led to more rapid development of civil engineering.
During the nineteenth century, 20, made of Portland cement, concrete has come out. Concrete can aggregate materials, easy-to-concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited use. By the middle of the nineteenth century, the surge in steel proction, with the emergence of this new type of reinforced concrete composite construction materials, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure and play their own advantages. Since the beginning of the 20th century, reinforced concrete is widely used in various fields of civil engineering.
From the beginning of the 1930s, there have been pre-stressed concrete. Pre-stressed concrete structure of the crack resistance, rigidity and carrying capacity, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses an even wider area. Civil Engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical period. Concrete buildings to bring about the emergence of new economic, aesthetic structure in the form of engineering, civil engineering so that a new construction technology and engineering design of the structure of the theory. This is another leap in the development of civil engineering.
A project to build the facilities in general to go through the investigation, design and construction in three stages, require the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro-geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, mechanical engineering, engineering design, building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy , And other disciplines and construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as computer and mechanical testing techniques. Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated disciplines. With the progress in science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a broad connotation, the number of categories, the structure of complex integrated system.
Civil Engineering is accompanied by the development of human society developed. It works in the construction of facilities reflect the various historical periods of socio-economic, cultural, scientific, technological development outlook, which civil society has become one of the historical development of the witness.
In ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and still water channel to meet the simple life and proction. Later, in order to adapt to the war, proction and dissemination of religious life, as well as the needs of the construction of the city, canals, palaces, temples and other buildings.
Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human creativity. For example, the Great Wall of China, Dujiangyan, the Grand Canal, Zhaozhou Bridge, Yingxian Wooden Tower, the pyramids of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, colosseum amphitheater (Rome large animal fighting Field), as well as many other well-known churches, palaces and so on.
After the instrial revolution, especially in the 20th century, on the one hand, civil society to put forward a new demand; On the other hand, all areas of society for the advancement of civil engineering to create good conditions. Thus this period of civil engineering has been advanced by leaps and bounds. All over the world there have been large-scale modernization of instrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridges, and large-diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grand Canal, the big dams, airports, port and marine engineering, etc. . For civil engineering continually modern human society to create a new physical environment, human society, modern civilization has become an important part.
Civil Engineering is a very practical subjects. In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, in particular, to draw lessons from the failure of developed. From the beginning of the 17th century, with Galileo and Newton as a pilot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, graally formed the mechanical, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mechanics, civil engineering as the basis of theoretical subjects. This experience in civil engineering from the graally developed into a science.
In the course of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of the research and development. So far a number of projects dealing with the problem, is still very much rely on practical experience.
Civil Engineering Technology with the main reason for the development of engineering practice and not by virtue of scientific experiments and theoretical studies, for two reasons: First, some of the objective situation is too complicated and difficult to faithfully carry out laboratory or field testing and analysis. For example, the foundation, tunnel and underground engineering and deformation of the state and its changes over time, still need to refer to an analysis of engineering experience to judge. Second, only a new engineering practice in order to reveal new problems. For example, the construction of a high-rise buildings, high-rise tower and mast-span bridges, wind and earthquake engineering problems highlighted in order to develop this new theory and technology.
In the long-term civil engineering practice, it is not only building great attention to the arts, has made outstanding achievements; and other works, but also through the choice of different materials, such as the use of stone, steel and reinforced concrete, with natural Environmental art in the construction of a number of very beautiful, very functional and good works. Ancient Great Wall of China, the modern world, many of the television tower and the bridge ramp Zhang, are cases in point.
A building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in .
As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :instrial buildings and civil buildings .instrial buildings are used by various factories or instrial proction while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,ecation and other social activities .
Instrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining instry ,the metallurgical instry ,machine building ,the chemical instry and the textile instry . factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones .the construction of instrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings .however ,instrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used .
Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings .residential buildings should suit family life .each flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet .public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on .all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as well.
Housing is the living quarters for human beings .the basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing .a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort .a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center .
In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out .a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities .in highly instrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work .quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion .the accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work .people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms .
Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be done.
An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended .in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” .attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas .the “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall .the living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove .the “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms .the “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets .the kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms .
It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible .it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads .in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on .
There is little standardization in instrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations .the modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings .generally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare .
② 土木工程专业英语课文翻译 段兵廷主编第二版lessen7 readingmaterial
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③ 急求一份土木工程专业英语（第2版）段兵延主编的全书翻译
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④ 急求：土木工程专业英语（第二版 段兵延主编）翻译
第一课
土木工程学
土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。计算机成为了现代土木工程师的必备品，因为它使得工程师能有效地掌控所需的大量数据从而确定建造一项工程的最佳方法。
结构工程学。在这一专业领域，土木工程师规划设计各种类型的结构，包括桥梁，大坝，发电厂，设备支撑，海面上的特殊结构，美国太空计划，发射塔，庞大的天文和无线电望远镜，以及许多其他种类的项目。结构工程师应用计算机确定一个结构必须承受的力：自重，风荷载和飓风荷载，建筑材料温度变化引起的胀缩，以及地震荷载。他们也需确定不同种材料如钢筋，混凝土，塑料，石头，沥青，砖，铝或其他建筑材料等的复合作用。
水利工程学。土木工程师在这一领域主要处理水的物理控制方面的种种问题。他们的项目用于帮助预防洪水灾害，提供城市用水和灌溉用水，管理控制河流和水流物，维护河滩及其他滨水设施。此外，他们设计和维护海港，运河与水闸，建造大型水利大坝与小型坝，以及各种类型的围堰，帮助设计海上结构并且确定结构的位置对航行影响。
岩土工程学。专业于这个领域的土木工程师对支撑结构并影响结构行为的土壤和岩石的特性进行分析。他们计算建筑和其他结构由于自重压力可能引起的沉降，并采取措施使之减少到最小。他们也需计算并确定如何加强斜坡和填充物的稳定性以及如何保护结构免受地震和地下水的影响。
环境工程学。在这一工程学分支中，土木工程师设计，建造并监视系统以提供安全的饮用水，同时预防和控制地表和地下水资源供给的污染。他们也设计，建造并监视工程以控制甚至消除对土地和空气的污染。他们建造供水和废水处理厂，设计空气净化器和其他设备以最小化甚至消除由工业加工、焚化及其他产烟生产活动引起的空气污染。他们也采用建造特殊倾倒地点或使用有毒有害物中和剂的措施来控制有毒有害废弃物。此外，工程师还对垃圾掩埋进行设计和管理以预防其对周围环境造成污染。
交通工程学。从事这一专业领域的土木工程师建造可以确保人和货物安全高效运行的设施。他们专门研究各种类型运输设施的设计和维护，如公路和街道，公共交通系统，铁路和飞机场，港口和海港。交通工程师应用技术知识及考虑经济，政治和社会因素来设计每一个项目。他们的工作和城市规划者十分相似，因为交通运输系统的质量直接关系到社区的质量。
渠道工程学。在土木工程学的这一支链中，土木工程师建造渠道和运送从煤泥浆(混合的煤和水)和半流体废污，到水、石油和多种类型的高度可燃和不可燃的气体中分离出来的液体，气体和固体的相关设备。工程师决定渠道的设计，项目所处地区必须考虑到的经济性和环境因素，以及所使用材料的类型——钢、混凝土、塑料、或多种材料的复合——的安装技术，测试渠道强度的方法，和控制所运送流体材料保持适当的压力和流速。当流体中携带危险材料时，安全性因素也需要被考虑。
建筑工程学。土木工程师在这个领域中从开始到结束监督项目的建筑。他们，有时被称为项目工程师，应用技术和管理技能，包括建筑工艺，规划，组织，财务，和操作项目建设的知识。事实上，他们协调工程中每个人的活动：测量员，布置和建造临时道路和斜坡，开挖基础，支模板和浇注混凝土的工人，以及钢筋工人。这些工程师也向结构的业主提供进度计划报告。
社区和城市规划。从事土木工程这一方面的工程师可能规划和发展一个城市中的社区，或整个城市。此规划中所包括的远远不仅仅为工程因素，土地的开发使用和自然资源环境的，社会的和经济的因素也是主要的成分。这些土木工程师对公共建设工程的规划和私人建筑的发展进行协调。他们评估所需的设施，包括街道，公路，公共运输系统，机场，港口，给排水和污水处理系统，公共建筑，公园，和娱乐及其他设施以保证社会，经济和环境地协调发展。
摄影测量，测量学和地图绘制。在这一专业领域的土木工程师精确测量地球表面以获得可靠的信息来定位和设计工程项目。这一 方面包括高工艺学方法，如卫星成相，航拍，和计算机成相。来自人造卫星的无线电信号，通过激光和音波柱扫描被转换为地图，为隧道钻孔，建造高速公路和大坝，绘制洪水控制和灌溉方案，定位可能影响建筑项目的地下岩石构成，以及许多其他建筑用途提供更精准的测量。
其他的专门项目。还有两个并不完全在土木工程范围里面但对训练相当重要的附加的专门项目是工程管理和工程教学。
工程管理。许多土木工程师都选择最终通向管理的职业。其他则能让他们的事业从管理位置开始。土木工程管理者结合技术上的知识和一种组织能力来协调劳动力，材料，机械和钱。这些工程师可能工作在政府——市政、国家、州或联邦；在美国陆军军团作为军队或平民的管理工程师；或在半自治地区，城市主管当局或相似的组织。他们也可能管理规模为从几个到百个雇员的私营工程公司。
工程教学。通常选择教学事业的土木工程师教授研究生和本科生技术上的专门项目。许多从事教学的土木工程师参与会导致建筑材料和施工方法技术革新的基础研究。多数也担任工程项目或技术领域的顾问，和主要项目的代理。
⑤ 土木工程专业英语第二版秦卫红翻译，急急急，网友帮帮忙，感谢
这是最好的专业，专门在中国永远的，为什么呢？中国建筑，城市规划，建设似乎永远不会结束。楼房拆迁重建，城市建筑越来越多，但新的领导班子的人数上任，还要建，所以这个专业在中国是永远的好专业，但是随着中国城市的不断扩张，大量的农村人口向城市的迁移，中国的城市化才刚刚开始，因为这个专业的建议，女孩放弃的特殊性，但。
1，在过去的土木工程是分开的，土木工程，道路，桥梁，隧道，事实上，现在已经分开，只是因为他们的基础课，专业课相同的国家团结起来的学科，根据美国过去的设定时间是根据苏联的分割方法，而美国大致分为，与美国已接近; - 第2，但是这三个有很多不同的学科，桥梁和土木工程是最大的区别不仅是学习土木结构，以及建筑（装饰，屋顶，建筑理论等），它不是学习的桥梁;
页3，我也学习的桥梁，为毕业后两年内桥，然后去土木工程，因为土木工程行业的主要单元（内置在系统中主要是土木工程，薪酬体系，中国中铁大桥局桥）;跨学科还是有些影响的，当我搞技术的也两年多来适应，但施工单位也比较好，很多东西都是固定的，根据规格，阿特拉斯走就行了，但一些大学学习和实际内发展很可能是几年的差异，所以学校很多东西都是不实际的，也有很多要学习当实际繁重的工作，那我也没有参考书，后来人们给了我一本书，他们的建筑学院，土木工程有时间就知道了，现在很多的参考资料，改行也很容易;
4，桥的就业机会不小，而许多单位支付系统，铁路系统，内置在系统和当地的交通系统;
页5，人生的大学，其实并不是唯一的专业学习专业知识，更重要的是，现在是时候去学习礼仪，提高社交能力，这两者应该处理好了，好了，毕业头我处理无论是在学校还是觉得，觉得以后的几年时间里，你可以学到更多，处理两者，这是非常重要的，考虑到了荣誉之间的关系;
6，专业的事，基础做铺垫未来，不要求很细，但学校好就行，最大限度地减少偏科，学习专业知识，没有捷径和技巧，努力的自然结果，课程没有任何注意力，学习方法不两句话可以明确，也不是适用于任何人，学习的大学课程里面也培养自己的学习过程，这是非常重要的，接触不同学科的需要后，一些较强的自主学习能力，这是不是被教导要自己培养出来的，因为是为人处世喜欢;
7，项目经理是一份工作，施工代表单位的项目，这是对性能的各个方面的工作还是不错的，综合性的技能和强大的能力的人，最重要的是组织，沟通能力，能够与技能，这在学校的表现，同时较低的亲和力需要培养;
8，学一门专业做了最好的理由，但更多的时候只是一份工作，我喜欢这份工作，其实，原来的一个有很多的梦想，在中国目前的情况，有没有机会选择喜欢的职业，当完成自己的工作，现在也不错;
9，项目经理，现在有一个施工一级资质证书，四年后毕业，使考试，除了学校的英语考试证书，计算机，驾照，该项目涉及的一个有用的无证书;
其实最喜欢的土木工程，道路桥梁，道路等市政服务的专业土建基本都一样，桥并不意味着学习不能做土木工程，土木建筑相关课程，了解选举的过程中，主管土木工程。说一些在校学习，还是实际相结合的经验和体验是非常重要的。
专业也非常好桥梁，公路，市政桥梁等工程的专业人才相当大的比重，特别是我们的江浙一带，水网纵横的桥梁是非常重要的。至于什么样的学校 - 认真学习就可以了每门课程。做毕业后没有工作经验，但缺乏理论知识。什么不应该。
项目经理（现在的建造师），到一定年限工作在考试前，毕业后再说。
⑥ 谁有土木工程专业英语第二版的翻译啊
段兵廷的个人空间，里面有全部课文翻译http://civilenglish.spaces.live.com/default.aspx
⑦ 土木工程专业英语翻译 段兵延
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⑧ 土木工程专业英语课文翻译 段兵廷主编第二版
我不大清楚你到底要哪段，所以我全都放上来了……
第四课 高层建筑
大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。
高层建筑早期的发展开始于钢结构。钢筋混凝土和薄壳筒系统已经经济而竞争性地被用于大量的住宅和商业目的的结构。由于新型结构系统的创新和发展，现在从50到100层的高层建筑遍布全美国。
更大高度的要求增加了梁柱的尺寸以使建筑物刚性更强，以便在风荷载作用下建筑物将不会产生超过一个可接受限度的摆动。过度的侧移可能导致隔墙，天花板和其他建筑细部的重复性损害。此外，过度侧倾可能使建筑物的居住者因为对摆动的知觉而导致不便。钢筋混凝土和钢结构系统，能充分利用整个建筑物固有潜在的劲性，因而不需要额外加劲以限制侧倾。
例如，在一个钢结构中，经济性由建筑物房屋面积每平方英尺钢的全部平均数量来定义。图一中的曲线A采用层逐渐增加的数量表现传统框架的平均单位重。曲线B则表现框架受到所有横向荷载保护下的平均钢重量。上下边界之间的间隙则表现传统梁柱框架为高度付出的额外费用。结构工程师已经发展了可消除这一额外费用的结构系统。
钢结构体系。因为一些类型的结构改革，钢高层建筑物得到了发展。此改革被用于办公大楼和公寓的建造。
带有刚性带式桁架的框架。为了将一个框架结构的外柱约束于内部的垂直梁架,可能在建筑物中部和顶部采用一个刚性带式桁架的系统。这一系统的最好例证是在密尔瓦基的威斯康辛州第一银行建筑物 (1974)。
框架筒体。只有当建筑物突出地面的所有的柱构件能够彼此连接使整个建筑物成为一个空心筒体或一个劲性箱体时，一幢高层建筑的整个结构才能最有效。这种特殊的结构体系第一次大概是用于芝加哥的43层楼高的德威特栗木钢筋混凝土公寓。而这一系统最重要的应用是纽约的110层楼高的世界贸易中心的钢结构双塔。
对角柱桁架支撑筒体。建筑物的外柱可以被适当的分隔却仍能通过在梁柱中线处交叉对角构件连接使之作为一个筒体而共同工作。这种简单而又极其有用的系统最早被用于芝加哥的约翰汉考克中心，其仅仅使用了传统的40层楼高建筑的用钢量
组合筒体（束筒）。由于对更大更高的建筑物的持续需求，框架筒和对角柱桁架支撑筒可能采用组合使用的形式以创造更大的筒，并仍可以保持高功效。芝加哥110层楼高的西尔斯瑞巴克总部有9个筒，由三排建筑物组合而成。一些个别筒体终止在建筑物不同的高度，证明了无限建筑可能性的结构观念。西尔斯塔高1450英尺（442m），是世界上最高的建筑。
薄壳筒体系。筒结构体系的发展提高了高层建筑抵抗侧向力（风和地震作用）和飘移（建筑物的侧向运动）的能力。薄壳筒使筒结构体系有了进一步的发展。薄壳筒的进步是利用（高层）建筑的外表面（墙和板）作为与框筒共同作用的结构构件，为高层建筑抵抗侧向荷载提供了一个有效的途径，而且可获得不设柱子，节省成本，使用面积与建筑面积之比很高的室内空间。
由于薄壳表面的作用，筒体的框架构件数量减少，使得结构更轻，费用更少。所有标准柱和外墙托梁都采用标准型钢，使得组合构件的使用和花费最小化。四周外墙托梁的深度要求也被减少，而且楼板上的顶梁对有用空间的占用会达到最小。这种结构系统已经被使用于 54 层楼高的匹兹堡的梅隆银行中心。
混凝土体系。虽然采用钢结构建造的高层建筑开始很早，但是钢筋混凝土高层建筑的快速发展在办公大楼和公寓方面对钢结构体系产生了很大的挑战。
框架筒体。由上面讨论到的，高层建筑最早的框架筒体概念应用于43层楼高的德威特栗木公寓。在这一建筑物中，外柱以中心距为5.5英尺（168米）的间隔排列，内柱则用于支撑8英寸厚的混凝土平板。
筒中筒。另一个用于办公大楼的钢筋混凝土结构体系是将内部框架筒体与传统的剪力墙工艺相结合。这种体系由间距很小的柱子构成的外框架筒与围绕中心设备区的刚性剪力墙内筒组成。这种被称为筒中筒的体系使设计目前世界上最高（714英尺或218米），总费用只相当于传统35层楼高的剪力墙结构体系的轻型混凝土建筑（52层楼高的休斯顿的壳广场建筑）成为可能。
结合混凝土和钢的体系也得到发展，这方面的一个例子是由Skidmore, Owings 和 Merrill发展的复合体系。它是采用间距很小的混凝土外框架筒包围钢框架内筒组成，因此兼有钢筋混凝土和钢结构体系的优点。在新奥尔良的一个 52 层楼高的壳广场建筑便是以这一体系为基础。
是这个不？
⑨ 土木工程专业英语课文翻译 段兵廷主编第二版lessen7 readingmaterial（1）
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⑩ 土木工程专业英语第2版的翻译
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